Generic and Species Names and What They Mean
    
     You will recall that in the first installment in this series I offered a broad overview of Botanical Latin, explaining why Latin is used and what some of the rules are. It was also my declared purpose to dispel some of the doubts that many people have regarding this fascinating subject.  
     One thing that everybody should have come away from the previous two installments with is that Latin words are made up of parts, and that there is an inter-play between those parts.  The most important part of the word is the root, which is the irreducible part of the word that all other forms of the word are based upon.  The root can be modified by the addition of meaningful prefixes or suffixes, which are the other parts of the words.  Many times botanical names are merely compound words, or words that are composed of two otherwise independent words, e.g., giganticaerulea, or leucocephala.  I also mentioned that a working knowledge of some of the more common Latin words and word modifiers will go a long way toward helping a person understand the organism that he has and why it was given the name that it has.
    There is one other aspect to the organization of nouns that bears mentioning here.  It is the concept of noun declensions.     As we know, nouns (Latin, substantia) are divided into cases, as discussed above, to indicate their position within a given context, either as Latin text or as Scientific Latin.  Declensions are groupings of nouns based upon the last letter of the root word, and what endings are traditionally attached to the roots.   There are five declensions.  It should be explained that the system of declensions arose after there was already a language, not the reverse, where the language would be crammed into an invented set of rules.  This is merely a representation of how the language evolved.   Knowledge of this is not essential to your understanding of Latin names, but it is good to know that it exists and that you may run into it.  You might even find a use for it from time to time, if only to understand what is meant when you look a word up in a glossary and it says, “Galactose: galactosum (s.n. II), gen. sing.”  The figures within the parentheses mean that the word is in the second declension, II, that it is a neuter noun (n.), and that the example given, galactosum, is singular (s).
   The first declension comprises all feminine nouns whose roots end in the letter a, which is most of them.   The second declension includes nouns that end with o.  This group represents all three genders, masc., fem., and neuter.  The third declension is a sort of catch all, comprising nouns that end in consonants and that end with the letter i.  The roots of fourth declension words end in u, and those of fifth declension words end in e.  The chart below shows all of the endings sorted by declension.  This system is arbitrary but contrary to what most young Latin students might tell you, it is useful to the serious student of linguistics.  

     I mentioned in the first installment that one of the more important things that can be learned from a scientific name is what position that organism, or group of organisms, occupies within the taxonomical hierarchy.   By knowing certain suffixes, you can determine if the encountered word denotes a species, a genus, a family, etc.  Most people only remember the endings as far as the level of families (-aceae), and this is fine.  There is no need for any casual observer to know any more than that in the general sense.   It is useful to remember that the names of larger groups are usually derived from one of the representative genera or species within the larger grouping.  By knowing which suffix is associated with which level of distinction, you can always know what is being discussed.  Of course, there are usually other genera within the family.  In our example, the family Nymphaeaceae, the genera Nelumbo, Nuphar, Victoria, Eurayle, etc. are also members in good standing according to most taxonomists.  Knowing this sort of thing is simply a memory game.  
     I also explained that a lot more than the position in the hierarchy can be determined by the suffixes that are on the words that we see.  I mentioned that there are several suffixes that say nothing about hierarchy, but rather, say something about the specific organism that is being named or described.   It will be remembered that most of the names given to organisms are descriptive, or phenotypic, meaning that they describe some feature of the organism’s appearance.  Alternatively, they may also describe life habits that separate it from all of the other species within a genus.  Or they may do both, or neither.  For this reason, you will find many species from different genera with the same specific name, e.g., Ludwigia repens, Ranunculus repens, Juncus repens, etc.   It can be surmised from the fact that all of these plants have the same specific name that there is something common to all of them.  It is that they all creep.  Repens means, simply, “creeping.”  Another form of the word is reptans and a familiar derivative of the same root, repere (L., to creep), is reptile.   Prostrata would not work here because these plants do not necessarily hug the ground.  Neither are they vines, although they frequently climb into taller plants, hence the distinction of creeping vs. prostrate.   There are other members of Ludwigia, for instance, that creep, but this is the one that got the name first.  The others are named for some other feature of their own.  
     One ending that is commonly encountered is -oides or -odes.  As mentioned in the first installment, they mean, “in the form of”.  In this case the word being modified is always that of another genus of plant or animal.  To continue with the example of Ludwigia, the species L. peploides, is named for the genus Peplis, syn., Didiplis, a genus of common annual wetland plants from eastern North America.  The resemblance obviously meant more to the taxonomist that coined the name than it might to the casual observer, but it is not impossible to detect.  An example of a plant being described in terms of an animal is Myosotis scorpioides, whose flowers emerge is a distinctly scorpion tail-like way.   The suffixes, -oides and -odes, as well as -morphus, are used on words of Greek origin.  For those of Latin origin, the suffix -formis is used.   
      It is interesting to note that Linnaeus, the father of Botanical Latin, detested the use of the ending -oides to indicate simple resemblance.  He regarded the use of the ending as, “the common and safe refuge of the idle.”  He preferred that the plant be named on its own merits or to honor somebody.  To that end, he renamed several genera and insisted that other naming techniques be used.  His efforts went un-rewarded, though; today there are dozens of examples of their use throughout the plant world.   Indeed, the ending is used in English today.  We have words such as “asteroid” (like a star), “anthropoid” (like a man), “humanoid” (like a human), etceteroid.
      There are names, of course, that have nothing whatever to do with what the plant or animal looks like.   You may encounter names that have been coined to honor a particular person, usually a botanist, or to tell us where the plant was discovered, or is most easily found.   To continue with the example of Ludwigia, L. peruensis (from Peru) comes to mind.  The entire genus is named for somebody named Ludwig.  Eichornia, the genus that includes water hyacinth, is named for Eichorn, a botanist.  Ludwigia and Eichornia are the names of genera, so they are in the nominative case, hence the -ia suffix.  If they were species, such as helmsii, they would be in the genitive case, and would have the -ii ending.   Other suffixes that denote honorary names are -iana (Nymphaea robinsoniana), and -ea, (Barbarea spp.)
     Another commonly encountered suffix is -ata.  This refers to a shape or form exhibited by a flower part, leaf, or stem.  It is the same as our ending -ate.  For example, prostrata = prostrate, hastata = hastate, crenata = crenate, etc.  This ending is in the  XXXX     case.  When used to denote the shape of a leaf, stem, or flower it is different from -formes, -oides, and -odes in that this ending is used to denote a geometric shape, rather than a comparison to another plant.  
     Some names seem to be incorrect in their description of a plant’s life habits.  One example is that of Myriophyllum brasiliense, or “Parrot’s Feather”.  This plant is frequently and, in my opinion, incorrectly referred to in the literature as M. aquatica.  I believe that this is incorrect because it is among the least strictly “aquatic” member of the genus, being more amphibious that most of the other species in Myriophyllum.   Most Myriophyllums barely emerge from the water, and then only to bloom.  Take them out of the water and they die.  With M. brasiliense the plant can climb out of the pond and grow to several feet from the water.  This is a case of an incorrect name, but it might also be a discounted, or archaic synonym, being picked up by a careless author and then being propagated in the literature and, thence, throughout the various interest groups.  Much to my surprise, the name M. aquatica is used in Hortus III, a well-known source of information, which gives it a currency that I do not think that it deserves.  But then, who am I to say?
 
GENERIC EPITHETS 
     As mentioned in the first installment, the names of genera are in the nominative case.  This is because genera are the names that are most commonly associated with a species, and the nominative case, dealing specifically with the direct object within a context, and because many of the names of genera are those of people or places, the nominative case is the best one for the job.  We hear remarks like, “Oh, it’s a Sagittaria, all right.  I don’t know what species, but it is obviously a Sagittaria of some sort, look at that flower.”   We do not hear people referring to plants by their specific names very often.  I have approached people saying, “Did you see that montevidensis (or that paniculata)?” referring to Sagittaria montevidensis or Eichornia paniculata, but this is only to those who are “in the know” and who will understand what is being said.  To a layperson, I would want to use more of the name to make myself clear.  I might even use (perish the thought) a common name.  The point is that most people know more generic names than specific ones.   This is as it was meant to be.  As mentioned above, the nominative case is used to indicate the subject of the matter.  It speaks in general terms, referring to the largest commonly recognizable groupings of organisms.  Family names refer to too broad a spectrum of species, and specific names are both too pointed to be recognized and are too often used to mean much without the generic name.  
   Generic names are usually formed by treating adjectives as nouns.  This means that adjectives, words such as big, or red, or ciliated, that modify nouns in one way or another, are given the same endings as the nouns that they are associated with, according to the endings of the adjectives.   Of course, everything agrees in number, case, and gender.  Gender is taken from the ending of the root word, and convention dictates that it is usually feminine, e.g., Sagittaria, nom, fem., sing. of Sagittarius.    Or Pontederia, nom. fem., sing. of  Pontederius.  We have all seen the names of old scientists (Copernicus), gods (Aesclepius), popes (Sextus ), musicians (Preatorius),  in this form.  If these names were those of genera of plants, they might be changed to       Copernica, Asclepias, Sextia, or even Praetoria    CHECK ENDINGS!!!!!!
     Generic names may also honor people or places.  In fact, quite a few do.  Naming a genus allows a taxonomist an opportunity to bestow a high honor upon a colleague or an admired scientist of the past or present.  These names end in the suffixes -ia, -ea, or simply, -a.
     Certain generic names defy the rules, instead using a form of the name that is not usually used.  Most of these examples are among the names of genera that were named long ago, before or by Linneus and other early taxonomists.
     Very few actually speak of geographical considerations, these being reserved for species, but many refer to features of the plant (Ceratophyllum => cerato, horn + phyllo, leaf or horn leaf, referring to small, hornlike protrusions that are arranged along the margins of the leaflets).  Another example of this is might be Polygonum, whose name translates to “multiple reproductive organs”.  



SPECIFIC EPITHETS
     As you are by now aware, there are several suffixes associated with specific names.   As mentioned above, they are used to denote form, place of origin, or to honor a person.  I shall address each of these in its turn.
      Names that denote form are the most difficult to described because there are so many possibilities.  They may talk about numbers of flower or leaf parts.  In these cases the following prefixes are used:
Geographical epithets (pg. 208).  May be substantives (nouns) in the genitive, e.g., saharae, of the Sahara; novae-angliae, of New England, etc.
    Preferred endings are adjectives, and end in -ensis, -anus (-a, -um) 
    Rarely used forms include, -acus, -aeus, -enus, -inus, -us. 
   When the name is for the people of an area, the name is in the genitive plural.  
    When the plant is an inhabitant of a particular place, not necessarily geographical, as with a parasitic species named for the substrate upon which it lives, the ending -cola is used, hence the name Schefflera arboricola, referring to a species of Schefflera that lives in trees.   
   Common prefix a-, meaning without, lacking, un-, -less.  Ex. apetalus, without petals.
      -aceus sufix with sense of “resembling, having the nature of, belonging to.  Used to 
      form adj from nouns, e.g., foliaceus from folium, etc.
-alis, suf. w/ sense of belonging to, resembling, provided with, pertaining to.  Used to
      form adj from noun, e.g. dorsalis from dorsum, pedalis from ped, etc. 
-aris sufix w/sense of belonging to resembling, provided with used to form adj from
     noun, e.g., acicularis from acicula (small needle), orbicularis from orbiculus (small 
     disc)
 -ascens  ending used to form adj to indicate a process of  becoming but also a lack of full 
     attainment., e.g. purpurascens, becoming purple or purplish.                .   
 per- prefix meaning very, through, thorough.  

The following is a glossary of common adjectives that might be used as parts of compound names, or as individual names.  For instance, we have the examples of Iris giganticaerulea, and Nymphaea gigantea.  One refers to a species of Iris that has large blue (flowers, presumably) and the other speaks of a Nymphaea that is larger than the average Nymphaea.  

LIST OF COMMON ADJECTIVES 




Numerical prefixes:
Number Derived from Latin Derived from Greek  Example
½  semi-   hemi-   semiannulatus, hemipterus
1  uni-   mono-   unifolius, monophyllus
2  bi-   di-   biformis, dimorphus
3  tri-   tri-   tripartitus, trimerus
4  quadri-   tetra-   quadiricolor, tetrachromus
5  quinque-  penta-   quinqunervis, pentaneurus
6  sex-   hexa-   sexangularis, hexagonus
7  septem-  hepta-   septemcostatus, heptapleurus
8  octo-   octo-   octosepalus, octopetalus
9  novem-  ennea-   
10  decem-   deca-
11  undecim-  endeca-, or hendeca-
12  duodecim-  dodeca-
20  viginti-   icosa-
few  pauci-   oligo-   paucistamineus, oligostemon
many  multi-   poly-   mutidentatus, polydontus

… or they may speak of the form or size of a plant:
Meaning   Derived from Latin  Derived from Greek Aquatic plant Ex.

in the form of  -oides, -formes, -is -forma, -is
    
large   grandis, magnus
small   parvus
erect   erectus
short   brevis
long   longus, elongatus
shiny      nitens
hairy   pubescens
toothed  dentate
saw-edged  serratus
smooth   laevis
thin   tenuis filiformis  gracilis
beaked   rostris
horned   cornis, cerato   ceras   Trapa bicornis
rigid   rigidus
ridge   crista
knobby   nodosus
bony   osseus
bordered  marginatus


Names may have parts that refer to the various parts of the plant:

Plant part Derived from Latin  Derived from Greek
root  radix    rhiz -, rhizi-
shoot      blasto-
blade  lamina
stem  caulis    stamato (stamen)
branch  ramus    klados
branchlet ramulus
leaf  folium    phyllum
veins  nervis    phleba (phlebitis)
flower  flora    anthos
petal  petalum
corolla  corolla
calyx  caucis
stamen  stamineum
pistil  pistillum
ovary  ovarium   oothiki
seed  semen    spermus
bark  cortex


They may refer to growth habits:
Habit  Derived from Latin  Derived from Greek

prostrate                          prostrata
producing long runners  sarmentosus
twining  volubilis
outspread patens
creeping  repens
upright  erecta

They may refer to growing conditions

palustris  relating to marshes
campestris  relating to plains
sylvestris  relating to woodlands
terrestris  relating to earth
palus, uliginosus bog, boggy

-ensis  from
-alis  connected with, pertaining to
-ineus  indicating resemblance or pessession
-aceus  made of, resembling
Shapes
angustis  narrow
lanceo- narrow, lance-like


     Colors present a special problem to the student of Botanical Latin.  This is because the names of colors are frequently derived from the various pigments used by ancient peoples to produce dyes and stains.  This is one case in which colloquialisms play a major role in the derivation of  “Latin” words.  There are no suffixes that are drawn from the lists above or below to indicate color.  Intensity, or distribution of color, perhaps, but not the colors themselves.  Colors have entire words of their own, which are modified as any others are by all of those damned endings.  The following is a list of themore commonly enaountered colors.
the color (pg 243) or




Colors:
albens, albus, -a white
blanca    
leuc-, leuco- white, paleness 
rosea                    red/pink
carnea                  pink
sanguineus blood red
caerulea               blue
azurea                  blue
purpurea. Ata       purple
violacea               violet
verde                   green
sulfurea                yellow
chrom-, chromat-, chromus     yellow


arcu-